"Red Chillies" redirects here. For the film, see Red Chillies (film). "Hot pepper" redirects here. For other uses, see Hot pepper (disambiguation). For the dish often called simply "chili", see Chili con carne. For the band, see Red Hot Chili Peppers.

Chili pepper
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Tribe: Capsiceae
L.
Genus: Capsicum
L.
Varieties and Groups
Synonyms[2]
Synonymy
  • Capsicum buforum Salisb.
Young chili plants

Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilli[3] (from Classical Nahuatl chīlli [ˈt͡ʃiːlːi] ⓘ), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency.[4] Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add "heat" to dishes. Capsaicin and related compounds known as capsaicinoids are the substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically. Chili peppers exhibit a wide range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types of paprika and chili powder, each offering its own distinctive taste and heat level.[5]

Chili peppers are believed to have originated somewhere in Central or South America[6][7][8] and were first cultivated in Mexico.[9] After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread around the world and were used for both food and traditional medicine. This led to a wide variety of cultivars, including the annuum species, with its glabriusculum variety and New Mexico cultivar group, and the species of baccatum, chinense, frutescens, and pubescens.

Cultivars grown in North America and Europe are believed to all derive from Capsicum annuum and have white, yellow, red, or purple to black fruits. In 2019, the world's production of raw green chili peppers amounted to 38 million tons, with China producing half.[10]

History

Origins

Capsicum plants originated in modern-day Peru & Bolivia and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.[7][11] They are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas.[11] Origins of cultivating chili peppers have been traced to east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago,[9][12] although, according to research by the New York Botanical Garden Press in 2014, chili plants were first cultivated independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru & Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon.[8] They were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central America,[13] and parts of South America.[11]

Peru has the highest variety of cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.[14] The largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.[14]

Distribution to Europe

When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum. They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper of the genus Piper known in Europe, they have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foods.[15] Chilis were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, appearing in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike pepper vines of the genus Piper which grow in the tropics, chilis could be grown in temperate climates. By the mid-1500s, they had become a very common garden plant in Spain and was incorporated into numerous dishes. They also spread into other areas, appearing in Italy by 1526, Germany in 1543, and the Balkans by 1569 where it was processed into the now-ubiquitous paprika.[16][17]

Distribution to the rest of the world

The rapid introduction of chilis to Africa and Asia was likely through the Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced it first to Africa and the Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa, Sri Lanka, and Malacca. From there, it spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. At around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilis to the Philippines, where it spread to Melanesia, Micronesia, and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China and Nagasaki, Japan.[18][16][19][17][20][21]

In 21st-century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.[22][23]

Production

Production of chillies and peppers, green – 2020
Region (Millions of
tons)
 China 16.7
 Mexico 2.8
 Indonesia 2.8
 Turkey 2.6
 Spain 1.5
World 36.1
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[24]

In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.[24]

Species and cultivars

Cayenne peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum annuum, one of the most diverse and commonly grown chili species
Tabasco peppers, like other Capsicum frutescens cultivars, characteristically bear fruits pointing upwards
Capsicum chinense, like Habanero peppers, include the hottest chili cultivars

There are five domesticated species of chili peppers:

  1. Capsicum annuum includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, Thai peppers, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile.
  2. Capsicum frutescens includes tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, and kambuzi.
  3. Capsicum chinense includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet.
  4. Capsicum pubescens includes the South American rocoto peppers.
  5. Capsicum baccatum includes the South American aji peppers.[25]

Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum. Unripe peppers are green (although peppers that do not turn red on ripening have been bred). In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which, when dried, is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.

Peppers are commonly broken down into two groupings: bell peppers (UK: sweet peppers) and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or a cross between them.

Intensity

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.[26][27] The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.[28]

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.[29] However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.[30] The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators and microbes, in particular a fusarium fungus carried by hemipteran insects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study.[31] Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant's seeds.[31]

Common peppers

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper0 SHU
Fresno, jalapeño3,500–10,000 SHU
Cayenne30,000–50,000 SHU
Piri piri, bird's eye50,000–100,000 SHU
Habanero, Scotch bonnet100,000–350,000 SHU[32]

Notable hot chili peppers

Red Bhut Jolokia and green bird's eye chilies

The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:

Country Type Hotness
 United StatesPepper X2.69M SHU[33]
 WalesDragon's Breath2.48M SHU*[34]
 United StatesCarolina Reaper2.2M SHU[35]
 Trinidad and TobagoTrinidad moruga scorpion2.0M SHU*[36]
 IndiaGhost pepper (Bhut jolokia)1.58M SHU[37]
 Trinidad and TobagoTrinidad Scorpion Butch T1.46M SHU[38]
 EnglandNaga Viper1.38M SHU[39]
 EnglandInfinity chili1.07M SHU[40]

NOTE: SHU claims marked with an asterisk (*) have not been confirmed by Guinness World Records.[41]

Uses

Culinary

Smoke-dried chipotle

Due to their unique pungency, chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, and many other South American and East Asian cuisines.

Chili pepper pods are botanically berries. When used fresh, they are most often prepared and eaten like a vegetable. Whole pods can be dried and then crushed or ground into chili powder that is used as a spice or seasoning. Chilies can be dried to prolong their shelf life. Chili peppers can also be preserved by brining, immersing the pods in oil, or by pickling.

Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.

Filipino tinola chicken soup with labuyo chili leaves

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola.[42] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.[43] In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.

Many Mexican dishes, including variations on chiles rellenos, use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño. In the northern Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora, chiltepin peppers (a wild pepper) are used in cheeses and soups to add spiciness to dishes. In southern Mexico, mole sauce is made with dried chiles, such as ancho and chipotle peppers. Chiles are used in salsas. Mexican households usually grow chile plants to use in cooking.

Chilies at a market in India

In India, most households always keep a stock of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes.

Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). The ema datshi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese.

Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable chili dishes include arrabbiata sauce, paprikash, chiles en nogada, jerk chicken, mole poblano, nam phrik, 'nduja, sambal, and som tam.

Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.

Ornamental plants

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

  • Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
    Black Pearl Pepper.
    Black pearl pepper
  • Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits[44]
  • Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell[45]

Psychology

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.[46]

Topical use and health research

Capsaicin, the pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.[47] A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer.[48]

Chemical irritants

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.[49] Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[49]

Crop defense

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.[50]

Food defense

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.[51]

Nutritional value

Peppers, hot chili, red, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy166 kJ (40 kcal)
8.8 g
Sugars5.3 g
Dietary fiber1.5 g
0.4 g
1.9 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
6%
48 μg
5%
534 μg
Vitamin B6
39%
0.51 mg
Vitamin C
173%
144 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Iron
8%
1 mg
Magnesium
6%
23 mg
Potassium
7%
322 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water88 g
Capsaicin0.01g – 6 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B6 (table).

Spelling and usage

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.

  • Chili is widely used in English of the United States[52] and optionally in Canada.[53] However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally "chili with meat"),[52] most versions of which are seasoned with chili powder, which in turn can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
  • Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,[54] as well as some parts of the United States[55] which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
  • Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chilli)[56] and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants.[56] Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in India,[57] Sri Lanka,[58] Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, South Africa, and variably in Canada.

The name of the plant is unrelated to that of Chile,[56] the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Certain Spanish-speaking countries in South America and the Caribbean, including Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Puerto Rico, call the peppers ají, a word of Taíno origin.

Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary[59] and Merriam-Webster.[60] The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of pungent plants and their fruits.[59]

Safety

The volatile oil in spicy peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring handwashing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.[61] Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Chili pepper". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
  2. ↑ "Capsicum annuum L." theplantlist.org. The Plant List.
  3. ↑ Dasgupta, R. R. (8 May 2011). "Indian chilli displacing jalapenos in global cuisine". The Economic Times.
  4. ↑ "HORT410. Peppers – Notes". Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.
  5. ↑ peppergeek (28 September 2022). "Paprika vs. Chili Powder vs. Cayenne: What's The Difference?". Pepper Geek. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
  6. ↑ Mishan, Ligaya (18 August 2022). "How The Chili Became Hot". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  7. 1 2 Pickersgill B (December 1971). "Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus Capsicum)". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 25 (4): 683–691. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x. PMID 28564789. S2CID 205772121.
  8. 1 2 Katherine C, Christine H (16 December 2014). "A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond". Economic Botany. New York Botanical Garden Press. 68 (3): 316–336. doi:10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2. JSTOR 43305668. S2CID 36556206. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  9. 1 2 Kraft KH, Brown CH, Nabhan GP, Luedeling E, Luna Ruiz J, Coppens d'Eeckenbrugge G, et al. (April 2014). "Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (17): 6165–6170. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6165K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1308933111. PMC 4035960. PMID 24753581.
  10. ↑ "Green chili production in 2019; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  11. 1 2 3 Bosland PW (1998). "Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop". In Janick J (ed.). Progress in New Crops. Arlington, VA: ASHS Press. pp. 479–487. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  12. ↑ "Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico". EurekaAlert, American Association for the Advancement of Science. 21 April 2014.
  13. ↑ Carrizo García, Carolina; Barfuss, Michael H. J.; Sehr, Eva M.; Barboza, Gloria E.; Samuel, Rosabelle; Moscone, Eduardo A.; Ehrendorfer, Friedrich (July 2016). "Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of chili peppers ( Capsicum , Solanaceae)". Annals of Botany. 118 (1): 35–51. doi:10.1093/aob/mcw079. ISSN 0305-7364. PMC 4934398. PMID 27245634.
  14. 1 2 van Zonneveld M, Ramirez M, Williams DE, Petz M, Meckelmann S, Avila T, et al. (2015). "Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0134663. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1034663V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134663. PMC 4581705. PMID 26402618.
  15. ↑ Bosland PW, Votava E (2000). Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums. New York City: CABI. p. 1. ISBN 9780851993355. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  16. 1 2 Sauer, Jonathan D. (2017). Historical Geography of Crop Plants A Select Roster. CRC Press. p. 161. ISBN 9781351440622.
  17. 1 2 Raghavan, Susheela (2006). Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings. CRC Press. p. 8. ISBN 9781420004366.
  18. ↑ Wallin, Nils-Bertil (11 June 2004). "Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire". YaleGlobal Online. Yale University. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
  19. ↑ DeWitt ·, Dave (2020). Chile Peppers A Global History. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 9780826361806.
  20. ↑ Collingham E (February 2006). Curry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-09-943786-4.
  21. ↑ Raj NM, Peter KV, Nybe EV (1 January 2007). Spices. New India Publishing. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-81-89422-44-8.
  22. ↑ Robinson S (14 June 2007). "Chili Peppers: Global Warming". Time. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  23. ↑ McQuaid J (20 February 2015). "What's driving the global chili pepper craze?". Forbes Media. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  24. 1 2 "Green chili production in 2020; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  25. ↑ Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM (2013). Conservation of tropical plant species. New York: Springer. p. 397. ISBN 9781461437758. Retrieved 28 November 2018.
  26. ↑ Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Okumura H (1961). "Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles". Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi. 35: 923–927. doi:10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.35.10_923. Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.
  27. ↑ Kosuge S, Inagaki Y (1962). "Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent". J. Agric. Chem. Soc. Japan (in Japanese). 36: 251–254.
  28. ↑ Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, Zamudio-Moreno E, Guzmán-Antonio A, Echevarría-Machado I, Martínez-Estévez M (1 March 2011). "Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq". HortScience. 46 (3): 487–492. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487. ISSN 0018-5345.
  29. ↑ O'Neill J, Brock C, Olesen AE, Andresen T, Nilsson M, Dickenson AH (October 2012). "Unravelling the mystery of capsaicin: a tool to understand and treat pain". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (4): 939–971. doi:10.1124/pr.112.006163. PMC 3462993. PMID 23023032.
  30. ↑ "History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS". Tabasco.Com. Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  31. 1 2 Tewksbury JJ, Reagan KM, Machnicki NJ, Carlo TA, Haak DC, Peñaloza AL, Levey DJ (August 2008). "Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (33): 11808–11811. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511808T. doi:10.1073/pnas.0802691105. PMC 2575311. PMID 18695236.
  32. ↑ Filippone PT (11 October 2000). "Chile Pepper Heat Scoville Scale". Homecooking.about.com. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  33. ↑ Atwal S (16 October 2023). "Pepper X dethrones Carolina Reaper as world's hottest chilli pepper". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  34. ↑ Morris L (22 January 2018). "The Hottest Chilli in the World was Created in Wales Accidentally". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
  35. ↑ Lynch K (19 November 2013). "Confirmed: Smokin Ed's Carolina Reaper sets new record for hottest chilli". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  36. ↑ Bryan SM (16 February 2012). "Trinidad Moruga Scorpion wins hottest pepper title". Yahoo! News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
  37. ↑ Joshi M (11 March 2012). "Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot". Your life. USA Today. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012.
  38. ↑ Da Silva M (12 April 2011). "Aussies grow world's hottest chilli". Australian Geographic. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
  39. ↑ "Title of world's hottest chili pepper stolen – again". The Independent. London. 25 February 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
  40. ↑ Henderson N (19 February 2011). ""Record-breaking" chilli is hot news". BBC News. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
  41. ↑ "Home". Guinness World Records.
  42. ↑ "Dahon ng Sili (Chili pepper leaves)". Tribo ความสุขบนเตียง. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007.
  43. ↑ "Vitamin Rich Chili pepper Leaf Kimchi". Ssoft International Corporation. Archived from the original on 14 November 2009.
  44. ↑ "Chilies as Ornamental Plants". Seedsbydesign. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013.
  45. ↑ "Bishop's crown pepper, image". CayenneDiane.com.
  46. ↑ Rozin P, Schiller D (1980). "The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans". Motivation and Emotion. 4 (1): 77–101. doi:10.1007/BF00995932. S2CID 143848453.
  47. ↑ Fattori V, Hohmann MS, Rossaneis AC, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA (June 2016). "Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses". Molecules. 21 (7): 844. doi:10.3390/molecules21070844. PMC 6273101. PMID 27367653.
  48. ↑ Kaur M, Verma BR, Zhou L, Lak HM, Kaur S, Sammour YM, et al. (March 2022). "Association of pepper intake with all-cause and specific cause mortality - A systematic review and meta-analysis". American Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 9: 100301. doi:10.1016/j.ajpc.2021.100301. PMC 8688560. PMID 34977833.
  49. 1 2 Haar RJ, Iacopino V, Ranadive N, Weiser SD, Dandu M (October 2017). "Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: a systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray". BMC Public Health. 17 (1): 831. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6. PMC 5649076. PMID 29052530.
  50. ↑ Mott M. "Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  51. ↑ Tewksbury JJ, Nabhan GP (July 2001). "Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies". Nature. 412 (6845): 403–404. doi:10.1038/35086653. PMID 11473305. S2CID 4389051.
  52. 1 2 "Chili". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 21 July 2021.; other spellings are listed as variants, with "chilli" described as "chiefly British"
  53. ↑ The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists chili as the main entry, and labels chile as a variant, and chilli as a British variant.
  54. ↑ Heiser C (August 1990). Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-79681-2.
  55. ↑ "chile". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  56. 1 2 3 "Chilli, chilly". OED. Vol. 2 C (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK. 1933. p. 346. Retrieved 19 July 2021.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  57. ↑ Usage example: "Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur". Thehindubusinessline.com. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
  58. ↑ Usage example: "Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
  59. 1 2 "Pepper". OED. Vol. 7 N–Poy (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK. 1913. p. 663. Retrieved 19 July 2021.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (sense 2b of pepper)
  60. ↑ "pepper". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
  61. ↑ Andrea Beck (8 May 2019). "How to Handle Hot Peppers and Chiles Safely". Better Homes and Gardens. Retrieved 23 July 2022.

Further reading

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