Phlegraean Fields
View of the Phlegraean Fields from the Hermitage of Camaldoli in Naples
Highest point
Elevation458 m (1,503 ft)[1]
Coordinates40°49′37″N 14°08′20″E / 40.827°N 14.139°E / 40.827; 14.139[1]
Naming
Native nameCampi Flegrei (Italian)
Geography
LocationItaly
Geology
Age of rock40,000 years
Mountain typeCaldera[1]
Volcanic arc/beltCampanian volcanic arc
Last eruptionSeptember to October 1538[1]
Sulfur at the Solfatara crater
1911 map of the area
Topographic relief map

The Phlegraean Fields (Italian: Campi Flegrei [ˈkampi fleˈɡrɛi]; Neapolitan: Campe Flegree) is a large volcanic caldera situated to the west of Naples, Italy.[lower-alpha 1] It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius on the east side of Naples. The Phlegraean Fields is monitored by the Vesuvius Observatory.[6] It was declared a regional park in 2003.

The area of the caldera consists of 24 craters and volcanic edifices; most of them lie under the Bay of Naples. There are effusive gaseous manifestations in the Solfatara crater, which was regarded in ancient times as the mythological home of Vulcan, the Roman god of fire.[7] The area features bradyseismic phenomena, which are most evident at the Macellum of Pozzuoli (misidentified as a temple of Serapis): bands of boreholes left by marine molluscs on marble columns show that the level of the site in relation to sea level has varied. Hydrothermal activity can still be observed at Lucrino, Agnano and the town of Pozzuoli.

Geological phases

Three geological phases or periods are recognised and distinguished.[8]

  • First Phlegraean Period. It is thought that the eruption of the Archiflegreo volcano occurred about 39,280 ± 110 years (older estimate ~37,000 years) ago, erupting about 200 km3 (48 cu mi) of magma (500 km3 (120 cu mi) bulk volume)[9] to produce the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption.[10] Its Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) was 7 and it left a large part of eastern Europe covered in ash.[11]
    "The dating of the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption (CI) to ~37,000 calendar years B.P. draws attention to the coincidence of this volcanic catastrophe and the suite of coeval, Late Pleistocene biocultural changes that occurred within and outside the Mediterranean region. These included the Middle to Upper Paleolithic cultural transition and the replacement of Neanderthal populations by anatomically modern Homo sapiens, a subject of sustained debate.[12] No less than 150 km3 of magma were extruded in this eruption (the CI eruption), traces of which can be detected in Greenland ice cores. As widespread discontinuities in archaeological sequences are observed at or after this eruption, a significant interference with ongoing human processes in Mediterranean Europe is hypothesized."[13]
It is believed that the resulting ecological crisis wiped out both the last Neanderthal and the first Homo Sapiens populations of the early Upper Paleolithic.[14][15] Modern humans then repopulated Europe from the east after the eruption and the ice age that took place from 38,000 to 36,000 BC.[16]
The Phlegrean area is characterised by banks of piperno and pipernoid grey tuff at Camaldoli hill, as in the northern and western ridge of Mount Cumae; other referable deep products are those found at Monte di Procida, recognizable in the cliffs of its coast.
  • Second Phlegraean Period, between 35,000 and 10,500 years ago.[8] This is characterized by the Neapolitan yellow tuff that is the remains of an immense underwater volcano, with a diameter of c. 15 kilometres (9.3 mi);[5] Pozzuoli is at its center. Approximately 12,000 years ago the last major eruption occurred, forming a smaller caldera inside the main caldera, with its centre where the town of Pozzuoli lies today.
  • Third Phlegraean Period, between 8,000 and 500 years ago.[8] This is characterized by white pozzolana, the material that forms the majority of volcanos in the Fields. Broadly speaking, it can be said there was initial activity to the southwest in the zone of Bacoli and Baiae (10,000–8,000 years ago); intermediate activity in an area centred between Pozzuoli, Spaccata Mountain and Agnano (8,000–3,900 years ago); and more recent activity towards the west, which formed Lake Avernus and Monte Nuovo (New Mountain) (3,800–500 years ago).

Volcanic deposits indicative of eruption have been dated by argon at  315,000, 205,000, 157,000 and 18,000  years ago.

More recent history

A fumarole at the Phlegraean Fields; painting by Michael Wutky (1780s)

The caldera, essentially at ground level as of 2023, is accessible on foot. It contains many steam-emitting fumaroles and over 150 pools (at the last count) of boiling mud. Several subsidiary cones and tuff craters, one filled by Lake Avernus, lie within the caldera.

In 1538, an eight-day eruption in the area deposited enough material to create a new hill, Monte Nuovo. It has risen about 2 m (7 ft) from ground level since 1970.

The volcanic island of Ischia suffered three destructive earthquakes in 1828, 1881, and the most destructive one in 1883, with a magnitude of 4.2–5.2 and causing catastrophic shaking assigned XI (Extreme) on the MCS scale. Extreme damage was reported on the island, and over 2,000 residents perished.[17]

At present, the Phlegraean Fields area comprises the Naples districts of Agnano and Fuorigrotta, the area of Pozzuoli, Bacoli, Monte di Procida, Quarto, the Phlegraean Islands (Ischia, Procida and Vivara).

A 2009 journal article stated that inflation of the caldera centre near Pozzuoli might presage an eruptive event within decades.[18] In 2012 the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program planned to drill 3.5 kilometres (11,000 feet) below the earth's surface near Pompeii, in order to monitor the massive molten rock chamber below and provide early warning of any eruption. Local scientists were worried that drilling could precipitate an eruption or earthquake; programme scientists said it was no different from industrial drilling in the area. The drilling was halted in 2010, but later resumed. A Reuters article emphasized that the area could produce a "super volcano" that might kill millions.[19]

A study from the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia reported that the volcanic unrest of the Campi Flegrei caldera from January 2012 to June 2013 was characterised by rapid ground uplift of about 11 cm (4 in), with a peak rate of about 3 cm (1 in) per month during December 2012. It added that from 1985 to 2011 the dynamics of ground uplift were mostly linked to the caldera's hydrothermal system, and that this relation broke down in 2012. The driving mechanism of the ground uplift changed to periodical emplacement of magma within a flat sill-shaped magmatic reservoir about 3,000 m (9,843 ft) in depth, 500 m (1,640 ft) south from the port of Pozzuoli.[20]

In December 2016, activity became so high that an eruption was feared.[21] In May 2017 a new study by University College London and the Vesuvius Observatory published in Nature Communications concluded that an eruption might be closer than previously thought. The study found that the geographical unrest since the 1950s has a cumulative effect, causing a build-up of energy in the crust and making the volcano more susceptible to eruption.[22][23][24][25]

On 21 August 2017 there was a magnitude 4 earthquake on the western edge of the Campi Flegrei area.[26] Two people were killed and many more people injured in Casamicciola on the northern coast of the island of Ischia, which is south of the epicentre.[27]

Activity since 2020

A February 2020 status report indicated that inflation around Pozzuoli continued at steady rates, with a maximum average of 0.7 cm per month since July 2017. Gas emissions and fumarole temperatures did not change significantly.[28][29]

On Sunday April 26, 2020, a moderate earthquake swarm hit Campi Flegrei caldera, with about 34 earthquakes ranging between magnitude 0 and magnitude 3.1 centered around the port city of Pozzuoli. The strongest quake in the sequence was of magnitude 3.1, the strongest at the time since the last major period of unrest and rapid uplift in 1982-1984. However, no new fumaroles were reported.[30]

Volcanic activity was reported in January 2022 to be increasing.[31] In the year to September 2023 seismic activity had intensified, particularly in the later months. On 27 September 2023, a magnitude 4.2 earthquake—the strongest in 40 years—prompted the preparation of contingency plans to evacuate up to 360,000 people in the area.[32] Despite a further 4.0 quake on 2 October, most volcanologists consider that a major eruption is not expected imminently.[33] The best-case scenario was deemed to be the activity ending, as happened after much activity on the 1980s; the worst would be an eruption like the one of 1538. A study by Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) and University College London (UCL) in June 2023 concluded that the volcano was edging towards "breaking point" and in an "extremely dangerous state".[34] Nello Musumeci, Italian minister for civil protection, was to ask Neapolitan local officials for an "acceleration in the drafting of exodus plans in the event of an emergency";[32] he said that evacuation would only be carried out in the event of "extreme necessity".[33]

Geoheritage designation

In respect of its 18th and 19th century role in the development of geoscience, not least volcanology, this locality was included by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022.[35]

Wine

Italian wine, both red and white, under the Campi Flegrei DOC appellation comes from this area. Grapes destined for DOC production must be harvested up to a maximum yield of 12 tonnes/hectare for red grape varieties, and 13 tonnes/ha for white grape varieties. The finished wines need to be fermented to a minimum alcohol level of 11.5% for reds and 10.5% for whites. While most Campi Flegrei wines are blends, varietal wines can be made from individual varieties, provided the variety used comprises at least 90% of the blend and the wine is fermented to at least 12% alcohol for reds and 11% for whites.[36]

Red Campi Flegrei is a blend of 50–70% Piedirosso, 10–30% Aglianico and/or Sciascinoso and up to 10% of other local (both red and white) grape varieties. The whites are composed of 50–70% Falanghina, 10–30% Biancolella and/or Coda di Volpe, with up to 30% of other local white grape varieties.[36]

Cultural importance

Campi Flegrei has had strategic and cultural importance.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Non-scientific media have described the area as a supervolcano[2] but it does not meet the criterion set by vulcanologists: an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8,[3] the largest recorded value on the index. This means the volume of deposits for such an eruption is greater than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cubic miles).[4] The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff eruption (about 12ka BP) produced "just" 50 cubic kilometers.[5]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 "Campi Flegrei". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2016-12-23.
  2. ↑ Howard, Brian Clark (22 December 2016). "One of Earth's Most Dangerous Supervolcanoes Is Rumbling". Nationalgeographc.com. National Geographic. Archived from the original on April 5, 2021.
  3. ↑ de Silva, Shanaka (2008). "Arc magmatism, calderas, and supervolcanos". Geology. 36 (8): 671. Bibcode:2008Geo....36..671D. doi:10.1130/focus082008.1.
  4. ↑ "Questions About Supervolcanoes". Volcanic Hazards Program. USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. 2015-08-21. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 2017-08-22.
  5. 1 2 Scarpati, Claudio; Cole, Paul; Perrotta, Annamaria (1993). "The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff — A large volume multiphase eruption from Campi Flegrei, Southern Italy". Bulletin of Vulcanology. 55: 343–356.
  6. ↑ "Campi Flegrei - stato attuale". Vesuvius Observatory. Retrieved 11 November 2023.
  7. ↑ Kozák, Jan; Čermák, Vladimír, eds. (2010). "Phleghraean Fields". The Illustrated History of Natural Disasters. Dordrecht and Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. pp. 67–71. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3325-3_6. ISBN 978-90-481-3325-3. LCCN 2010920318.
  8. 1 2 3 Brand, Helen. Volcanism and the Mantle: Campi Flegrei (PDF) (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-08-10. Retrieved 25 September 2005.
  9. ↑ Fisher, Richard V.; Giovanni Orsi; Michael Ort; Grant Heiken (June 1993). "Mobility of a large-volume pyroclastic flow — emplacement of the Campanian ignimbrite, Italy". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 56 (3): 205–220. Bibcode:1993JVGR...56..205F. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(93)90017-L. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
  10. ↑ Fedele, Francesco G.; et al. (2002). "Ecosystem Impact of the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption in Late Pleistocene Europe". Quaternary Research. 57 (3): 420–424. Bibcode:2002QuRes..57..420F. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2331. S2CID 129476314.
  11. ↑ Kathryn E. Fitzsimmons et al., The Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption: New Data on Volcanic Ash Dispersal and Its Potential Impact on Human Evolution, 2013 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065839
  12. ↑ Neanderthal Apocalypse Documentary film, ZDF Enterprises, 2015. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
  13. ↑ De Vivo, B.; G. Rolandi; P. B. Gans; A. Calvert; W. A. Bohrson; F. J. Spera; H. E. Belkin (November 2001). "New constraints on the pyroclastic eruptive history of the Campanian volcanic Plain (Italy)". Mineralogy and Petrology. 73 (1–3): 47–65. Bibcode:2001MinPe..73...47D. doi:10.1007/s007100170010. S2CID 129762185.
  14. ↑ Kathryn E. Fitzsimmons et al., The Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption: New Data on Volcanic Ash Dispersal and Its Potential Impact on Human Evolution, 2013 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065839
  15. ↑ Giaccio, B. et al., High-precision 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Campanian Ignimbrite (Y-5) reconciles the time-scales of climatic-cultural processes at 40 ka. Sci Rep 7, 45940 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45940
  16. ↑ Bennett, E.A. et al., Genome sequences of 36,000- to 37,000-year-old modern humans at Buran-Kaya III in Crimea. Nat Ecol Evol (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02211-9
  17. ↑ S. Carlino; E. Cubellis; A. Marturano (2010). "The catastrophic 1883 earthquake at the island of Ischia (southern Italy): macroseismic data and the role of geological conditions". Natural Hazards. 52 (231): 231–247. doi:10.1007/s11069-009-9367-2. hdl:10.1007/s11069-009-9387-y. S2CID 140602189.
  18. ↑ Isaia, Roberto; Paola Marianelli; Alessandro Sbrana (2009). "Caldera unrest prior to intense volcanism in Campi Flegrei (Italy) at 4.0 ka B.P.: Implications for caldera dynamics and future eruptive scenarios". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (L21303): L21303. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3621303I. doi:10.1029/2009GL040513.
  19. ↑ Antonio Denti, "Super volcano", global danger, lurks near Pompeii, Reuters, August 3, 2012.
  20. ↑ D'Auria, Luca; Susi Pepe; Raffaele Castaldo; Flora Giudicepietro; Giovanni Macedonio; Patrizia Ricciolino; Pietro Tizzani; Francesco Casu; Riccardo Lanari; Mariarosaria Manzo; Marcello Martini; Eugenio Sansosti; Ivana Zinno (2015). "Magma injection beneath the urban area of Naples: a new mechanism for the 2012–2013 volcanic unrest at Campi Flegrei caldera". Scientific Reports. 5: 13100. Bibcode:2015NatSR...513100D. doi:10.1038/srep13100. PMC 4538569. PMID 26279090.
  21. ↑ "Naples astride a rumbling mega-volcano".
  22. ↑ "Campi Flegrei volcano eruption possibly closer than thought".
  23. ↑ "One of World's Most Dangerous Supervolcanoes is Rumbling". 22 December 2016. Archived from the original on December 23, 2016.
  24. ↑ "One of the world's most terrifying supervolcanoes is showing signs of reawakening in Italy". Independent.co.uk. 21 December 2016. Archived from the original on 2022-05-26.
  25. ↑ "Italian Supervolcano Could be Closer to Erupting Than Previously Thought". 15 May 2017.
  26. ↑ "M 4.3 - 5km NW of Monte di Procida, Italy". USGS.
  27. ↑ "Ischia earthquake: cheers go up as rescuers free third trapped brother". Guardian. 22 August 2017.
  28. ↑ "Campi Flegrei volcano (Italy) status report: no significant variations in activity". www.volcanodiscovery.com. 21 November 2019.
  29. ↑ "Campi Flegrei volcano (Italy) status report: continuing slow inflation". www.volcanodiscovery.com. 27 February 2020.
  30. ↑ "Campi-Flegrei-volcano-(Italy):Seismic swarm reported". www.volcanodiscovery.com. 27 April 2020.
  31. ↑ Europe's super volcano. Deutsche Welle (4' video). 21 January 2022.
  32. 1 2 Giuffrida, Angela (28 September 2023). "Fears rise of volcanic eruption near Naples after strongest earthquake in 40 years". The Guardian.
  33. 1 2 "Italy plans for mass evacuation as quakes continue around supervolcano". The Guardian. Reuters. 5 October 2023.
  34. ↑ "Parts of Italian volcano 'stretched nearly to breaking point', study finds". AFP. 9 June 2023. citing Kilburn, C. R. J.; Carlino, S; Danesi, S (2023). et al. "Potential for rupture before eruption at Campi Flegrei caldera, Southern Italy". Commun Earth Environ. 4 (190): 190. Bibcode:2023ComEE...4..190K. doi:10.1038/s43247-023-00842-1.
  35. ↑ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  36. 1 2 P. Saunders Wine Label Language pg 132 Firefly Books 2004 ISBN 1-55297-720-X
  37. ↑ Calcaterra, Domenico; Cappelletti, Piergiulio; Langella, Alessio; Morra, Vincenzo; Colella, Abner; De Gennaro, Roberto (2000). "The building stones of the ancient centre of Naples (Italy): Piperno from Campi Flegrei. A contribution to the knowledge of a long-time-used stone". Journal of Cultural Heritage. 1 (4): 415–427. doi:10.1016/S1296-2074(00)01097-9.
  38. ↑ Marra, F.; Palladino, D. M.; Licht, O. A. Boni (2022). "The peperino rocks: Historical and volcanological overview". Bulletin of Volcanology. 84 (7): 69. Bibcode:2022BVol...84...69M. doi:10.1007/s00445-022-01573-5. hdl:11573/1660768. S2CID 249873677.
  39. ↑ "Pozzuoli: history, archeology, art, architecture, environment".
  40. ↑ Liubov Vitaliena Golovanova; Vladimir Borisovich Doronichev; Naomi Elancia Cleghorn; Marianna Alekseevna Koulkova; Tatiana Valentinovna Sapelko; M. Steven Shackley (October 2010). "Volcanoes Wiped out Neanderthals, New Study Suggests" (news release). Current Anthropology. 51 (5): 655–691. doi:10.1086/656185. S2CID 144299365. Significance of Ecological Factors in the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition

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