Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
Great Seal of the United States
Long titleAn act to authorize funds for Federal-aid highways, highway safety programs, and transit programs, and for other purposes.
Acronyms (colloquial)IIJA
NicknamesBipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL)
Enacted bythe 117th United States Congress
EffectiveNovember 15, 2021
Number of co-sponsors5
Citations
Public lawPub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 117–58 (text) (PDF)
Statutes at Large135 Stat. 429
Codification
Titles amended23 U.S.C. § 
Agencies affectedDepartment of Transportation (USDOT)
Legislative history

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA), most commonly known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL), (H.R. 3684), is a United States federal statute enacted by the 117th United States Congress and signed into law by President Joe Biden on November 15, 2021. It was originally introduced in the House as the INVEST in America Act, and was commonly known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill before it was signed into law.

The act was initially a $547–715 billion infrastructure package that included provisions related to federal highway aid, transit, highway safety, motor carrier, research, hazardous materials and rail programs of the Department of Transportation.[1][2] After congressional negotiations, it was amended and renamed to the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act to include funding for broadband access, clean water and electric grid renewal in addition to the transportation and road proposals of the original House bill. This amended version included approximately $1.2 trillion in spending, with $550 billion being newly authorized spending on top of what Congress was planning to authorize regularly.[3][4]

The amended bill was passed 69–30 by the Senate on August 10, 2021. On November 5, it was passed 228–206 by the House, and ten days later was signed into law by President Biden.[5]

Background

On March 31, 2021,[6] President Joe Biden unveiled his $2.3 trillion American Jobs Plan (which, when combined with the American Families Plan, amounted to $4 trillion in infrastructure spending),[7] pitched by him as "a transformative effort to overhaul the nation's economy".[8] The detailed plan aimed to create millions of jobs, bolster labor unions, expand labor protections, and address climate change.[9][10]

Legislative history

Senate passage

In mid-April 2021, Republican lawmakers offered a $568 billion counterproposal to the American Jobs Plan.[11] On May 9, Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell said it should cost no more than $800 billion.[12] On May 21, the administration reduced the price tag to $1.7 trillion, which was quickly rejected by Republicans.[13] A day later, a bipartisan group within the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee announced that they had reached a deal for $304 billion in funding for U.S. highway funding.[14] This was approved unanimously by the committee on May 26.[15] On June 4, House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee Chair Peter DeFazio announced a $547 billion plan, called the INVEST in America Act, which would address parts of the American Jobs Plan.[16][lower-alpha 1] On July 1, the House passed an amended $715 billion infrastructure bill focused on land transportation and water.[17]

On May 27, Republican senator Shelley Moore Capito presented a $928 billion plan,[18][lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] and on June 4, increased it by about $50 billion; this was quickly rejected by the Biden administration.[19] On June 8, the administration shifted its focus to a bipartisan group of 20 senators, which had been working on a package tentatively priced around $900 billion.[20][lower-alpha 4] On June 10, a bipartisan group of 10 senators reached a deal costing $974 billion over five years; or about $1.2 trillion if stretched over eight years.[22] On June 16, the plan was endorsed by a bipartisan group of 21 senators.[23] On June 24, the bipartisan group met with the president and reached a compromise deal costing $1.2 trillion over eight years, which focuses on physical infrastructure (notably roads, bridges, railways, water, sewage, broadband, electric vehicles). This was planned to be paid for through reinforced Internal Revenue Service (IRS) collection, unspent COVID-19 relief funds, and other sources.[24] By July 2021, the IRS portion of the funding had reportedly been scrapped.[25] Biden stipulated that a separate "human infrastructure" bill (notably child care, home care, and climate change) – later known as the Build Back Better Act – must also pass, whether through bipartisanship or reconciliation,[24] but later walked back this position.[26] House Speaker Nancy Pelosi similarly stated that the House would not vote on the physical infrastructure bill until the larger bill passes in the Senate,[27] despite the fact that reconciliation overrides much of the obstructive power of the filibuster.[27][28]

White House officials stated on July 7 that legislative text was nearing completion.[29] On July 14, the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee advanced an energy bill expected to be included in the bipartisan package.[30] On July 21, Senate Majority Leader Charles Schumer put forward a "shell bill" for a vote to kick off debate in the Senate, intending to add the bipartisan text via an amendment.[31][lower-alpha 5] On July 25, Republican senator Rob Portman stated that an agreement was "about 90%" complete, with mass transit being one remaining point of contention.[33] On July 30, Portman stated that this had been resolved.[34] On July 28, Senator Kyrsten Sinema stated that she did not support a reconciliation bill costing $3.5 trillion, breaking the stalemate and allowing the bipartisan bill to move forward.[35] That day, the Senate voted 67–32 to advance the bill,[36] and on July 30, voted 66–28 to proceed to its consideration.[37] The legislation text was completed and substituted into the bill on August 1.[38] On August 5, Schumer moved to truncate debate on the legislation, setting up a procedural vote on August 7,[39] which passed 67–27.[40] Fifteen or more amendments were expected to receive votes through the weekend.[40] On August 10, the bill was passed by the Senate 69–30.[41] It sets aside $550 billion in new spending.[42] A procedural vote on a House rule concerning passing both bills passed along party lines on August 24.[43]

House passage

President Biden signing the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act into law on November 15, 2021
House vote by congressional district November 5
  Democratic yea (215)
  Republican yea (13)
  Democratic nay (6)
  Republican nay (200)

In early August, nine moderate Democrats called for an immediate House vote on the bill, citing a desire not to lose the momentum from the Senate passage of the bill. They committed to voting against taking up the reconciliation resolution until there was a vote on the bipartisan infrastructure bill.[44][45] While both Biden and House Speaker Nancy Pelosi have reversed earlier positions to support passing the bipartisan bill separately,[26][46] progressives including Congressional Progressive Caucus chairwoman Pramila Jayapal and Senator Bernie Sanders maintained that it be utilized as leverage to pass the most expensive reconciliation bill possible.[47][48][49] The lack of a deal caused a late September House vote to be postponed.[49] On October 2, Pelosi set a new deadline of October 31.[50] By October 28, Jayapal and other progressive leaders indicated that they were willing to vote on the bill separately,[51] but Sanders and others opposed this.[52][53] On October 31, a majority of progressives signaled that they would support both bills.[54]

Votes on both bills were considered on November 5, but the hesitation of several moderates to pass the reconciliation bill before it could be scored by the Congressional Budget Office made passing the bipartisan bill unlikely.[55] Negotiations between centrist and progressive Democrats concluded with the centrists committing to passing the Build Back Better Act.[56] The bill ultimately went to a vote, as did a rule to vote on the larger bill once it was scored, passing 228–206; 13 Republicans joined all but six Democrats (members of "the Squad") in supporting the legislation.[57][58][59] The six Democrats who voted 'No' stated that their opposition was because the legislation had been decoupled from the social-safety net provisions of the Build Back Better bill.[60][61] Biden signed the bill into law at a signing ceremony on November 15.[62]

Provisions

The final version restores the Superfund excise tax on certain chemicals[63] which expired in 1995.[64]

Overview

Investment categories ($ billion) in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021, adding to about $550 billion over a decade[65]

According to NPR, the version which passed the Senate on July 28 is set to include:

  • $110 billion for roads, bridges and other major projects;
  • $11 billion for transportation safety programs;
  • $39 billion to modernize transit and improve accessibility;
  • $66 billion for passenger and freight rail;
  • $7.5 billion to build a national network of electric vehicle chargers;
  • $73 billion to overhaul the nation's power infrastructure, clean energy transmission, and overall energy policy;
  • $65 billion for broadband development.[35]

The law would also make the Minority Business Development Agency a permanent agency.[66] It authorizes the DOT to create an organization called the Advanced Research Projects Agency–Infrastructure (ARPA–I), with a broad remit over transportation research akin to DARPA, HSARPA, IARPA, ARPA-E, and ARPA-H,[67] with the first appropriations of $3.22 million being made in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023.[68][69][70]

Impact on environment and climate

An October 2021 report written by the REPEAT Project, a partnership between the Evolved Energy Research firm and Princeton University's ZERO Lab, said the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act alone will make only a small reduction in emissions, but as they say: "We lack modeling capabilities to reflect the net effect of surface transportation investments in highways (which tend to increase on-road vehicle and freight miles traveled) and rail and public transit (which tend to reduce on-road vehicle and freight miles traveled). These significant programs are therefore not modeled in this analysis, an important limitation of our assessment of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act".[71]

The Georgetown Climate Center tried to estimate how the $599 billion investment for surface transportation in the bill can impact emissions from transportation. It created two scenarios: "high emissions" and "low emissions". In the first scenario, from the money dedicated to highways, more money will go to building new highways, while in the second, more will go to repairing existing highways. The other spending areas characteristics are not so different. The first scenario sees increased cumulative emissions over the years 2022-2040 by more than 200 million tons, while the second decreases them by around 250 million tons.[72]

The law includes the largest federal investment in public transit in history.[73] The law includes spending figures of $105 billion in public transport. It also spends $110 billion on fixing roads and bridges and includes measures for climate change mitigation and improving access for cyclists and pedestrians.[74] Increasing use of public transport and related transit-oriented development can reduce transportation emissions in human settlements by 78% and overall US emissions by 15%.[75]

The law includes spending $21 billion for environmental projects, $50 billion for water storage, and $15 billion for electric vehicles.[76] It also includes $73 billion to overhaul the energy policy of the United States.[74][77] The law also gives $4.7 billion to cap orphan wells abandoned by oil and gas companies[78][79][80] and $1 billion to better connect neighborhoods separated by transport infrastructure as part of environmental justice efforts.[81] This $1 billion will be spent through the Reconnecting Communities Pilot (RCP) discretionary grant program[82] that, among other priorities, promotes: "New or improved, affordable transportation options to increase safe mobility and connectivity for all, including for people with disabilities, through lower-carbon travel like walking, cycling, rolling, and transit that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote active travel."[83]

Energy

$73 billion will be spent on overhauling the energy policy of the United States. $11 billion of that amount will be invested in the electrical grid's adjustment to renewable energy, with some of the money going to new loans for electric power transmission lines and required studies for future transmission needs.[84][85][86] $6 billion of that $73 billion will go to domestic nuclear power. Also of that $73 billion, the IIJA invests $45 billion in innovation and industrial policy for key emerging technologies in energy; $430 million[87]–$21 billion in new demonstration projects at the DOE; and nearly $24 billion in onshoring, supply chain resilience, and bolstering U.S.-held competitive advantages in energy; the latter amount will be divided into an $8.6 billion investment in carbon capture and storage, $3 billion in battery material reprocessing, $3 billion in battery recycling, $1 billion in rare-earth minerals stockpiling, and $8 billion in new research hubs for green hydrogen.[77] The DOE has imposed grant requirements on $7 billion of the IIJA's battery and transportation spending, which are meant to promote community benefits agreements, social justice, and formation of trade unions.[88] Finally, the law gives $4.7 billion to cap orphan wells abandoned by oil and gas companies.[78][79][80]

Water

To support safe drinking water programs, the law provides:

For surface water programs, such as watershed management and pollution control, the law provides:

Adressing drought in western states

The bill provides 8 billion dollars for helping western states deal with the Southwestern North American megadrought. Spendings for many related projects are included under the category Western Water Infrastructure.[92][93]

Bridges

Prior to the enactment of the infrastructure law in 2021, no dedicated federal bridge funding had existed since fiscal year 2013. The law created two new programs specifically to fund bridge projects:[94]

Bridge Formula Program (BFP)

With $27.5 billion over five years, the BFP distributes funds to every state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico based on a formula that accounts for each state's cost to replace or rehabilitate its poor or fair condition bridges. Each state is guaranteed a minimum of $45 million per year from this program. At least 15% of each state's funds must be spent on off-system bridges (i.e., public bridges that are not on federal-aid highways), and 3% is set aside each year for bridges on tribal lands. Off-system and tribal bridge projects may be funded with a 100% federal share (as opposed to the standard 80% federal share).[95]

Bridge Investment Program (BIP)

With $12.5 billion over five years, the BIP is a competitive grant program to replace, rehabilitate, preserve, or make resiliency improvements to bridges. Half of the funding is reserved for large bridge projects, which are defined as projects that cost over $100 million. Large projects are funded at a maximum 50% federal share, while other projects are funded at a maximum 80% federal share.[96]

Passenger rail

The infrastructure law is the largest investment in passenger rail since the 1971 creation of Amtrak (which under the law will receive $22 billion in advance appropriations and $19 billion in fully authorized funds).[97][98] It directly appropriated $66 billion for rail over a five-year period (including the Amtrak appropriations), of which at least $18 billion is designated for expanding passenger rail service to new corridors, and it authorized an additional $36 billion.[98] Most of this funding for new passenger rail lines is implemented through the Federal-State Partnership for Intercity Passenger Rail program, which will receive $36 billion in advance appropriations and $7.5 billion in fully authorized funds.[98] The Consolidated Rail Infrastructure and Safety Improvements program will receive $5 billion in advance appropriations and $5 billion in fully authorized funds, while programs for grade separation replacing level crossings will receive $3 billion in advance appropriations and $2.5 billion in fully authorized funds, and the Restoration and Enhancement Grant program intended to revive discontinued passenger rail services will receive $250 million in advance appropriations and $250 million in fully authorized funds.[98] Per the law's requirements, at least $12 billion is available and $3.4–4.1 billion authorized for expanding service outside of the Northeast Corridor, and $24 billion is available and $3.4–4.1 billion authorized to partially rebuild the Corridor.[99]

To help plan and guide the expansion of passenger rail service beyond the Northeast Corridor, the infrastructure law also created a $1.8 billion Corridor Identification and Development Program.[100] The law also expands eligibility for a potential $23 billion in transit funding to these corridors and changes the allocation methods for state government-supported passenger rail shorter than 750 miles, to encourage states to implement more such service.

Highway removal and complete streets

The law includes $1 billion over five years for Reconnecting Communities planning and construction grants, the first of which were awarded in February 2023.[101]

Transit station accessibility

The law established and authorized $1.75 billion over five years for a new All Stations Accessibility Program (ASAP).[102] This program is designed to improve the accessibility of rail system stations that were built before the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). At the time of the infrastructure law's passage, over 900 transit stations were not fully ADA-compliant.[103]

Wildlife crossings and conservation

The infrastructure law created the Wildlife Crossings Pilot Program with $350 million in funding over five years. This is a competitive grant program that funds planning and construction projects that prevent wildlife vehicle collisions and improve the connectivity of animal habitats.[104]

The law also allocated $1 billion to create the National Culvert Removal, Replacement, and Restoration Grant program to improve the passage of anadromous fish such as salmon.[105]

Transportation safety

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act requires the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to develop a safety mechanism to prevent drunk driving, which causes about 10,000 deaths each year in the United States as of 2021, which will be rolled out in phases for retroactive fitting,[106][107] and will become mandatory for all new vehicles in 2027.[108] The technology, which is being developed by NHTSA in cooperation with the Automotive Coalition for Traffic Safety and Swedish automobile safety company Autoliv, consists of a breath-based and a touch-based sensor that stops the car if the driver is above the legal blood alcohol content, and will be open-sourced to automobile manufacturers.[109]

Under the law, the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) will be required to develop regulations for a system that can detect distracted, fatigued, or impaired drivers.[106] The NHTSA has recommended implementing a camera-based warning system for the former, similar to a technology mandated by the European Union in July 2022.[109]

The law also requires the NHTSA's New Car Assessment Program to test collision avoidance systems in preparation for new federal regulations; new DOT reporting requirements for statistical data on crashes involving motorized scooters and electric bicycles; new federal regulations on headlamps; research directives on technology to protect pedestrians and cyclists, advanced driver-assistance systems, federal hood and bumper regulations, smart city infrastructure, and self-driving cars; and a new Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) office specializing in cybersecurity.[106]

Implementation and results

A sign for a road project funded by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act in Avon, Connecticut

Macroeconomic impact

According to the New Democrat-linked think tank Center for American Progress, the Act, the CHIPS and Science Act, and the Inflation Reduction Act have together catalyzed over 35,000 public and private investments.[110] The Biden administration itself claimed that as of December 22, 2023, the IIJA, CaSA, and IRA together catalyzed over $640 billion in private investment (including $234 billion in electronics and semiconductors, $157 billion in electric vehicles and batteries, $133 billion in clean power and $75 billion in the clean energy industry) and over $425.3 billion in public infrastructure spending (including $37.3 billion in energy aside from tax credits in the IRA).[111]

Energy

In November 2022, the Biden administration announced it would furnish $550 million for the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant program for clean energy generators for low-income and minority communities, the first such appropriation since the Recovery Act in 2009.[112][113] The administration announced the competitive portion would award $8.8 million to 12 communities on October 12, 2023, with the next award applications due in April 2024.[114][115]

On October 24, 2023, the administration announced the first $3.46 billion in grants from the Act's $11 billion grid rebuilding authorization, would go to 58 projects in 44 states. 16 projects are categorized as for improving grid resilience, 34 are categorized as for building smart grids, and eight are categorized as pursuing grid innovation. The investment is the largest in the American grid since the Recovery Act 14 years earlier. According to Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm, the projects could enable 35 gigawatts of renewable energy to come online by 2030 and 400 microgrids to be built.[116][117]

On October 30, the DOE announced the results of a mandated triennial study that, for the first time in its history, included anticipation of future grid transmission needs.[85] The DOE also announced the first three recipients of a new $2.5 billion loan program it called the Transmission Facilitation Program, created to provide funding to help build up the interstate power grid. They are the 1.2-gigawatt Twin States Clean Energy Link between Quebec, New Hampshire and Vermont, the 1.5-gigawatt Cross-Tie Transmission Line between Utah and Nevada; and the 1-gigawatt Southline Transmission Project between Arizona and New Mexico.[86][84]

On November 15, the Biden administration announced a funding opportunity for the second investment from the grid rebuilding authorization, which would total $3.9 billion, beating the October 24 investment. Grid developers have a deadline of January 12, 2024 to apply.[118][119]

On November 16, 2023, the Biden administration announced the first recipients of $40.8 million in grants from a workforce training program the Act created, which will provide skills for industrial technology, the building trades and energy auditing.[120][121]

Hydrogen hubs

The Biden administration awarded $7 billion of the $8 billion appropriation to seven hydrogen research hubs, based in California, eastern Washington, southeastern Pennsylvania, southeastern Texas, Illinois, Minnesota, and West Virginia and affecting projects there and in eight more states, on October 13, 2023. The remaining $1 billion will be used for demand-side economic policies to drive growth in hydrogen use.[122][123]

Several criticisms of the hubs emerged. Jeff St. John, editor in chief of Canary Media, noted while it does mandate that the DOE create a clean hydrogen definitional standard (which as of October 2023 the DOE had not published), and that the DOE selected applicants who pledged community benefits agreements, the Act does not prescribe metrics or guidelines for measuring emissions from these hubs.[124] Researcher Hannah Story Brown of the watchdog group Revolving Door Project noted that the majority of hub projects announced are powered by fossil fuels, not renewable energy.[125]

Transportation

The bill contains $27 billion in funding for specific, concrete programs within the Federal Highway Administration that are already implemented to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector, all of which was allotted in November 2023. For example, $7.2 billion is allocated to the "Transportation Alternatives Set-Aside Program" (creating more possibilities for biking and walking), $6.4 billion to the "Carbon Reduction Program" (reducing emissions from highways), $69 million to the "Transit-Oriented Development Program" (enhancing transit-oriented development and improving land use) and more.[126]

On December 8, the Biden administration announced it would award $8.2 billion from the Act's Federal-State Partnership for Intercity Passenger Rail Program to ten construction projects, including Brightline West, the Southeast High Speed Rail Corridor, the Keystone Corridor, California High-Speed Rail, the Downeaster and Empire Builder services, a partial rebuilding of Chicago Union Station, and a bridge replacement near Willow on the Alaska Railroad. It also announced the first results of the Act's Corridor ID Program, with $34.5 million being distributed to 15 existing rail upgrades, 47 extensions of rail corridors, and 7 new high-speed rail studies.[127][128]

Colorado River

In 2023 an agreement between seven states was achieved, aiming to preserve the Colorado River water system from collapse due to poor management and climate change. The United States is heavily dependent on the river for power generation, drinking water, agriculture, wildlands restoration, and native cultural practices. Some states will reduce water use, receiving compensation for it (totaling $1.2 billion) from the federal government. Many other projects for preserving the river such as water recycling and rainwater harvesting, are advanced. The funding comes from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act and the Inflation Reduction Act.[129][130]

Climate adaptation

The bill provides around $7 billion to the Federal Emergency Management Agency for helping communities adapt to different climate-related disasters such as hurricanes, droughts, and heat waves. In August 2023, $3 billion was allocated to different related projects, including 124 projects related to resilient infrastructure and communities (located in "38 states, one tribe and the District of Columbia") and 149 projects related to protection from flooding (located in "28 states and the District of Columbia"). From the projects related to infrastructure, 64 use nature-based solutions. Some of the most vulnerable communities will receive help for free.[131]

In November 2023, the Biden administration announced that $300 million from FEMA's new Swift Current Initiative created by the Act would go to helping communities impacted by floods recover and grow their resiliency.[118][132] It also announced that it would award "$50 million in project awards to improve the reliability of water resources and support ecosystem health in Western states, along with an additional $50 million funding opportunity for water conservation projects and hydropower upgrades."[118]

Reactions

Congress

Republican senators balked at Biden's tandem plan to pass both a bipartisan plan and a separate Democratic-supported reconciliation bill.[133] McConnell criticized Biden for "caving" to his own party by issuing an "ultimatum" that he would not sign the bipartisan bill without a separate reconciliation package.[134] After Biden walked back his comments, Republican senators restated their confidence in the bipartisan bill.[26] A Yahoo! News/YouGov poll conducted in late June found that 60% of Republican voters favored the plan.[135]

On June 20, 2021, Senator Bernie Sanders stated that he would not support paying for the bill via a proposed gas tax or a surcharge on electric vehicles.[136]

On June 28, 2021, Sunrise Movement and several progressive representatives performed a protest at the White House in criticism of the size and scope of Biden's Civilian Climate Corps. Several protesters were arrested for blocking White House entrances.[137]

On July 6, the 58-member bipartisan House Problem Solvers Caucus stated their support for the bipartisan bill and called for an expeditious and independent House vote.[138] On July 21, a group of 65 former governors and mayors endorsed the plan.[139]

Ahead of a procedural vote on August 7, former president Donald Trump attacked the bill and said he would support Republican primary challengers of senators who vote for it.[40] He reiterated his criticisms following the bill's passage by Congress.[140]

Following the bill's passage by Congress in November, Trump criticized it as containing "only 11% for real Infrastructure", calling it "the Elect Democrats in 2022/24 Act", and attacked Republicans who had supported it, saying in particular that McConnell had lent "lifelines to those who are destroying" the country.[140] Various House Republicans also criticized the 13 Republican representatives who voted for the bill.[141] Lauren Boebert described them as "RINOS" (Republican in Name Only).[141] Mary Miller called them "spineless" and said they helped enact a "socialist takeover".[141] Marjorie Taylor Greene called them "traitors" and "American job & energy killers", who "are China-First and America-Last", because they "agree with Globalist Joe [Biden] that America must depend on China to drive" electric vehicles.[142] Gary Palmer was criticized for touting funding for the Birmingham Northern Beltline that he added to the bill, while neglecting to mention that he voted against the final bill.[143] Paul Gosar was also criticized for taking credit for the bill's funding for Kingman Airport despite voting against it.[144] Several Republican governors who condemned the bill, including Kristi Noem of South Dakota and Greg Gianforte of Montana, accepted the funding and directed it to various programs.[145]

Others

On June 22, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Business Roundtable and No Labels made a joint statement urging the president to consider a bipartisan bill.[146] The former two groups have lobbied for the plan not to raise corporate taxes, and to instead impose user fees and borrow from other federal funds.[146]

According to an early August Harvard CAPS-Harris Poll survey, about 72% of voters support the bill.[147]

On September 24, leaders from the U.S. Conference of Mayors, the National League of Cities, the National Urban League, and other Black American advocacy groups signaled their support for the bill.[66]

On September 25, Peter J. Wallison authored an opinion piece for The Hill in which he argued that Republicans should try to pass the bipartisan bill to prevent it from being used as further leverage to pass the reconciliation bill.[148] Subsequently, Republican House leaders formally opposed the bipartisan bill.[47]

"Historians, economists and engineers interviewed by The Associated Press welcomed Biden's efforts. But they stressed that $1 trillion was not nearly enough to overcome the government's failure for decades to maintain and upgrade the country's infrastructure."[149]

The think tank Transportation for America praised the House version of the bill,[150] but heavily criticized the Senate version for its shortcomings on safety, climate resilience, long-term transit and rail funding and transit-oriented development, and maintenance spending, though it later noted that the final version that became law made small steps to address them.[151][152][153][154]

The nuclear industry favored the legislation as it signaled continued federal government support.[155]

Polling from Third Way and Impact Research released in July 2022 showed that only 24% of voters were aware the bill was signed into law, despite House Democrats holding over 1,000 events to promote it.[156]

Reception to the drunk driver detection and distraction detection requirements have been mixed. Mothers Against Drunk Driving praised the requirement as "the beginning of the end of drunk driving".[157] In contrast, the American Civil Liberties Union has expressed concern that the technology developed could pose a severe privacy risk to drivers if it collects or stores unnecessary data.[158] Writing for Vice, Aaron Gordon also argued that the technology is likely to have an unacceptably high false-positive rate — existing ignition interlock devices that are sometimes installed after drunk driving convictions are prone to catastrophic failures.[159]

In October 2023, the Natural Resources Defense Council criticized the IIJA's hydrogen hubs program for its lack of transparency, emphasizing the need for detailed technical reports, public hearings to thwart local NIMBYism and skepticism of hydrogen, and incorporation of environmental justice advocates into project leadership.[160]

Earlier versions of the bill

The following is the bill summary authorized by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) for the INVEST in America Act, the original version which passed the House on July 1, 2021:

  • "extends FY2021 enacted levels through FY2022 for federal-aid highway, transit, and safety programs;
  • reauthorizes for FY2023-FY2026 several surface transportation programs, including the federal-aid highway program, transit programs, highway safety, motor carrier safety, and rail programs;
  • addresses climate change, including strategies to reduce the climate change impacts of the surface transportation system and a vulnerability assessment to identify opportunities to enhance the resilience of the surface transportation system and ensure the efficient use of federal resources;
  • revises Buy America Act procurement requirements for highways, mass transit, and rail;
  • establishes a rural bridge rebuilding program to improve the safety and state of good repair of bridges in rural communities;
  • implements new safety requirements across all transportation modes; and
  • directs the Department of Transportation to establish a pilot program to demonstrate a national motor vehicle per-mile user fee to restore and maintain the long-term solvency of the Highway Trust Fund and achieve and maintain a state of good repair in the surface transportation system."[161]

The specific amounts in surface transportation spending were $343 billion for roads, highways, bridges and motor safety, $109 billion for transit, and $95 billion for rail.[16] Provisions of the bill incentivized prioritizing maintenance and repair spending over spending on new infrastructure, holistically planning for all modes of transport when considering how to connect job centers to housing (including collecting data on reductions in vehicle miles traveled through transit-oriented development), and lowering speed limits to increase road safety and encourage building complete streets. The Senate version, and the final bill, de-emphasized these incentives.[2][150][152][151][153][154]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ According to CBS News, this "would dedicate:
    • $343 billion to roads, bridges and safety
    • $109 billion to public transit systems; and
    • $95 billion to passenger and freight rail."[16]
  2. ↑ The week before, a spokeswoman for Capito had said Republicans seemed to be "further apart" from Democrats regarding the bill than they were at their previous meeting with the president.[13]
  3. ↑ According to CNBC, the plan "includes:
    • $506 billion for roads, bridges and major infrastructure projects
    • $72 billion for water systems
    • $65 billion for broadband
    • $56 billion for airports
    • $46 billion for passenger and freight rail systems
    • $22 billion for ports and waterways
    • $22 billion for water storage
    • $21 billion for safety efforts [and]
    • $20 billion for infrastructure financing".[18]
  4. ↑ On June 9, the House's 58-member bipartisan Problem Solvers Caucus presented a plan which would cost $1.25 trillion over eight years. According to The Hill, the plan "calls for
    • more than $959 billion for traditional infrastructure, including highways, bridges, rail, airports and waterways
      • [including] $25 billion ... for electric vehicle infrastructure, including electric buses ...
    • $74 billion for drinking water and wastewater systems
    • $71 billion for the electric grid and clean-energy programs
    • $45 billion for broadband; and
    • $10 billion for veterans' housing."[21]
  5. ↑ McConnell and some other Republicans indicated that they wished to see the text prior to voting on debating it.[31] The measure initially failed to pass along party lines, with Schumer switching his vote to 'no' so he could recall the vote on another day.[32]

References

  1. ↑ "Industry associations applaud U.S. House passage of INVEST in America Act". Roads & Bridges. July 1, 2021. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. Retrieved July 2, 2021.
  2. 1 2 "Chairs DeFazio, Norton, and Payne Introduce the INVEST in America Act to Create Millions of Jobs Bringing Our Infrastructure into the Modern Era". The House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure. US House of Representatives. June 4, 2021. Archived from the original on July 23, 2021. Retrieved July 23, 2021.
  3. ↑ Sprunt, Barbara; Kim, Caitlyn; Shivaram, Deepa (November 6, 2021). "Biden says final passage of $1 trillion infrastructure plan is a big step forward". NPR. Archived from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved November 14, 2021.
  4. ↑ "Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill Passes, What Happens Next". Investopedia. Archived from the original on November 13, 2021. Retrieved November 14, 2021.
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  161. ↑ H.R. 3684 at Congress.gov
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