The theory of a biological basis of love has been explored by such biological sciences as evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology, anthropology and neuroscience. Specific chemical substances such as oxytocin are studied in the context of their roles in producing human experiences, emotions and behaviors that are associated with love.

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology has proposed several explanations for love. Monkey infants and children are for a very long time dependent on parental help. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote mutual parental support of children for an extended time period. Another is that sexually transmitted diseases may cause, among other effects, permanently reduced fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase risks during childbirth. This would favor exclusive long-term relationships reducing the risk of contracting an STD.[1]

From the perspective of evolutionary psychology the experiences and behaviors associated with love can be investigated in terms of how they have been shaped by human evolution.[2] For example, it has been suggested that human language has been selected during evolution as a type of "mating signal" that allows potential mates to judge reproductive fitness.[3] Miller described evolutionary psychology as a starting place for further research: "Cognitive neuroscience could try to localize courtship adaptations in the brain. Most importantly, we need much better observations concerning real-life human courtship, including the measurable aspects of courtship that influence mate choice, the reproductive (or at least sexual) consequences of individual variation in those aspects, and the social-cognitive and emotional mechanisms of falling in love." Since Darwin's time there have been similar speculations about the evolution of human interest in music also as a potential signaling system for attracting and judging the fitness of potential mates.[4] It has been suggested that the human capacity to experience love has been evolved as a signal to potential mates that the partner will be a good parent and be likely to help pass genes to future generations.[5] Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as 'unconditional selflessness',[6] suggesting utterly cooperative instincts developed in modern humans' ancestor, Australopithecus. Studies of bonobos (a great ape previously referred to as a pygmy chimpanzee) are frequently cited in support of a cooperative past in humans.[7]

Bode and Kushnick undertook a comprehensive review of romantic love from a biological perspective in 2021.[8] They considered the psychology of romantic love, its mechanisms, development across the lifespan, functions, and evolutionary history. Based on the content of that review, they proposed a biological definition of romantic love:

Romantic love is a motivational state typically associated with a desire for long-term mating with a particular individual. It occurs across the lifespan and is associated with distinctive cognitive, emotional, behavioral, social, genetic, neural, and endocrine activity in both sexes. Throughout much of the life course, it serves mate choice, courtship, sex, and pair-bonding functions. It is a suite of adaptations and by-products that arose sometime during the recent evolutionary history of humans.[8]

Recently, Bode proposed that romantic love evolved by co-opting mother-infant bonding.[9] The theory says that the genes that regulate mother-infant bonding were recreated and took on a new function. The theory is based on a literature arising from research on prairie voles that pair bonding uses the same mechanisms that mother-infant bonding use as well as the available human evidence. The theory was used to critique a previously asserted evolutionary theory of romantic love proposed by Helen Fisher.[10] Bode's theory explains not only one process in the emergence and subsequent evolution of romantic love, but also proposed a new model of the mechanisms of romantic love. The models contends that romantic love is made up of bonding attraction, attachment, obsessive thinking, sexual desire, and courtship attraction.

Social psychology

Social psychological approaches to explaining love have been developed to help further explain the psychological components involved in love. One of the more prominent concepts pertaining to love was proposed by Robert J. Sternberg known as the "Triangular theory of love". Proposed within this theory, love follows a triangular motion, flowing with combinations of different levels within the three sides of the triangle. The three sides are Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment.[11] Within those three sides of the triangle, combinations between two can produce certain types of love and affection. For example, Intimacy plus Passion leads to romantic love while Intimacy plus Commitment leads to compassionate love. The relative amount of love invested is explained by the size and general form of the triangle. Triangular theories do not solely apply to one's own current relationship, they also can be meant for explaining what different levels of intimacy/passion/commitment mean in an imbalanced triangle, or even determine your love triangle for a preference of relationship.

Neurochemistry

Simplified overview of the chemical basis of love.

One view in biology is that there are three major drives in love – libido, attachment, and partner preference.[12][13] The primary neurochemicals (neurotransmitters, sex hormones, and neuropeptides) that govern these drives are testosterone, estrogen, dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin.[12][14]

Central dopamine pathways mediate partner preference behavior, while vasopressin in the ventral pallidum and oxytocin in the nucleus accumbens and paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus mediate partner preference and attachment behaviors.[12][15] Sex drive is modulated primarily by activity in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway (ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens).[12] Trace amines (e.g., phenethylamine and tyramine) play a critical role in regulating neuronal activity in the dopaminergic pathways of the central nervous system.[16]

Testosterone and estrogen contribute to these drives by modulating activity within dopamine pathways.[12] Adequate brain levels of testosterone seem important for both human male and female sexual behavior.[17] Norepinephrine and serotonin have a less significant, contributing role through their neuromodulatory effects upon dopamine and oxytocin release in certain pathways.[12]

The chemicals triggered that are responsible for passionate love and long-term attachment love seem to be more particular to the activities in which both persons participate rather than to the nature of the specific people involved.[13] There is mixed evidence about the role of cortisol in romantic love.[18]

A less speculative account of the neurochemistry of romantic love was provided by Bode & Kushnick in 2021.[18] While they recognize that other factors play a role, they summarize the available human endocrinological evidence that implicates testosterone, dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, cortisol, and nerve growth factor in romantic love. There is no evidence that estrogen and norepinephrine play a major role in romantic love (although they might) and only neuroimaging and genetic evidence of vasopressin's involvement.[19][20]

Role of the limbic system

The role of the limbic system in emotion was first explained by James Papez in 1937 within his paper titled "A proposed mechanism of emotion". The model described is known as the Papez circuit. The Papez circuit highlighted the presence of neuronal pathways between the vestibular and the limbic system.[21] The vestibular apparatus is in the inner ear and coordinates the body balance and movement. This requires extensive neuronal networking. Vestibular stimulation, which comes from the apparatus, can cause changes in mood and emotion. It can also impact emotions either independently or as part of the general limbic system networks by influencing the hypothalamus. These emotions can include extreme passivity, loss of drive/motivation, excessive eating and drinking, and rage and violent behavior.[21] Studies show Romantic Love uses reward and motivation systems to focus on a specific individual. The limbic cortical regions process individual emotion factors.[22] In A General Theory of Love, three professors of psychiatry from UCSF provide an overview of the scientific theories and findings relating to the role of the limbic system in love, attachment and social bonding. They advance the hypothesis that our nervous systems are not self-contained, but rather demonstrably attuned to those around us and those with whom we are most close. This empathy, which they call limbic resonance, is a capacity which we share, along with the anatomical characteristics of the limbic areas of the brain, with all other mammals.[23] Their work builds on previous studies of the importance of physical contact and affection in social and cognitive development, such as the experiments conducted by Harry Harlow on rhesus monkeys, which first established the biological consequences of isolation.

Brain imaging

Brain scanning techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging have been used to investigate brain regions that seem to be involved in producing the human experience of love.[24]

In 2000, a study led by Semir Zeki and Andreas Bartels of University College London concluded that at least two areas of the brain become more active when in love. These were foci in the media insula, which the brain associates with instinct, and part of the anterior cingulate cortex, which is associated with feelings of euphoria.[25]

Ortigue et al. found that an unconscious prime of the name of a romantic partner activated similar brain regions as when subjects were consciously aware of seeing partners' faces.[26] Subliminal priming with either a beloved's name or a favorite hobby activated emotion and motivational brain regions: caudate nucleus, insula, bilateral fusiform regions, parahippocampal gyrus, right angular gyrus, occipital cortex, and cerebellum. However, the love prime evoked more activation in bilateral angular gyri and bilateral fusiform regions than the hobby prime. These regions are associated with integrating abstract representations, and the angular gyrus in particular is involved with abstract representations of the self. The authors also found a correlation (r=0.496, p=0.002) between activation of a region of the angular gyrus with a passionate-love scale measuring subjective feelings of love.[26]

Love and motivation

Conscious thoughts about a romantic partner activate brain regions related to reward and motivation. Ortigue et al. investigated whether unconscious priming by a partner's name could also affect motivation. They found that priming by either a beloved or a favorite hobby improved reaction times in identifying whether a string of letters was a word or not compared against priming by a neutral friend. The authors suggest this effect happens because a beloved's name "may call for a goal-directed state" and produce "dopaminergic-driven facilitation effects."[26] Similarly, the love one feels for their friends may also be biologically motivated. Isern-Mas and Gomila argue that while the love we feel for our friends is not romantic, it is still motivated through feelings of moral obligations as well as changes in the brain resulting from prosocial experiences.[27] The common motivation whether it be love romantically or through a non-intimate companion can be connected to positive feelings and rewards that in turn, form social bonds.[28] As seen in other animals as well, the immediate connections between the love of a mother and their infant impacts their personality as they age.[29]  Harlow described love as a secondary drive for all animals, but it is essential for proper development. The animals that were left abandoned, had trouble socializing with others and often had personality issues as well.[29]

See also

References

  1. ↑ The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, edited by David M. Buss, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. Chapter 14, Commitment, Love, and Mate Retention by Lorne Campbell B. and Bruce J. Ellis.
  2. ↑ "Evolutionary psychology: the emperor's new paradigm" by D. J. Buller in Trends Cogn. Sci. (2005) Volume 9 pages 277-283.
  3. ↑ The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature Archived 15 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine by Geoffrey F. Miller in Psycoloquy (2001) 12,#8.
  4. ↑ Evolution of human music through sexual selection by G. F. Miller in N. L. Wallin, B. Merker, & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of music, MIT Press, (2000). pp. 329-360.
  5. ↑ Haufe, C. (2007). "Sexual selection and mate choice in evolutionary psychology" (PDF). Biology and Philosophy. 23: 115–128. doi:10.1007/s10539-007-9071-0. S2CID 85080793.
  6. ↑ Griffith J. 2011. What is Love?. In The Book of Real Answers to Everything ISBN 9781741290073. http://www.worldtransformation.com/what-is-love/
  7. ↑ Sussman, Robert W. (2004). The Origins and Nature of Sociality. Transaction Publishers. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-202-30731-2.
  8. 1 2 Bode, Adam; Kushnick, Geoff (2021). "Proximate and Ultimate Perspectives on Romantic Love". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 573123. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573123. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8074860. PMID 33912094.
  9. ↑ Bode, Adam (2023). "Romantic love evolved by co-opting mother-infant bonding". Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176067. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 10616966.
  10. ↑ Fisher, H. E. (March 1998). "Lust, attraction, and attachment in mammalian reproduction". Human Nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.). 9 (1): 23–52. doi:10.1007/s12110-998-1010-5. ISSN 1045-6767. PMID 26197356. S2CID 29258310.
  11. ↑ "Love". Robert J. Sternberg. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fisher HE, Aron A, Brown LL (December 2006). "Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 361 (1476): 2173–86. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1938. PMC 1764845. PMID 17118931. The sex drive evolved to motivate individuals to seek a range of mating partners; attraction evolved to motivate individuals to prefer and pursue specific partners; and attachment evolved to motivate individuals to remain together long enough to complete species-specific parenting duties. These three behavioural repertoires appear to be based on brain systems that are largely distinct yet interrelated, and they interact in specific ways to orchestrate reproduction, using both hormones and monoamines. ... Animal studies indicate that elevated activity of dopaminergic pathways can stimulate a cascade of reactions, including the release of testosterone and oestrogen (Wenkstern et al. 1993; Kawashima &Takagi 1994; Ferrari & Giuliana 1995; Hull et al. 1995, 1997, 2002; Szezypka et al. 1998; Wersinger & Rissman 2000). Likewise, increasing levels of testosterone and oestrogen promote dopamine release ...This positive relationship between elevated activity of central dopamine, elevated sex steroids and elevated sexual arousal and sexual performance (Herbert 1996; Fiorino et al. 1997; Liu et al. 1998; Pfaff 2005) also occurs in humans (Walker et al. 1993; Clayton et al. 2000; Heaton 2000). ... This parental attachment system has been associated with the activity of the neuropeptides, oxytocin (OT) in the nucleus accumbens and arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the ventral pallidum ... The activities of central oxytocin and vasopressin have been associated with both partner preference and attachment behaviours, while dopaminergic pathways have been associated more specifically with partner preference.
  13. 1 2 Slater, Lauren (February 2006). "Love". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 December 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  14. ↑ Zeki, S (June 2007). "The neurobiology of love". FEBS Lett. 581 (14): 2575–9. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2007.03.094. PMID 17531984. S2CID 17342689.
  15. ↑ McGregor IS, Callaghan PD, Hunt GE (May 2008). "From ultrasocial to antisocial: a role for oxytocin in the acute reinforcing effects and long-term adverse consequences of drug use?". Br. J. Pharmacol. 154 (2): 358–368. doi:10.1038/bjp.2008.132. PMC 2442436. PMID 18475254. Recent studies also highlight remarkable anxiolytic and prosocial effects of intranasally administered OT in humans, including increased 'trust', decreased amygdala activation towards fear-inducing stimuli, improved recognition of social cues and increased gaze directed towards the eye regions of others (Kirsch et al., 2005; Kosfeld et al., 2005; Domes et al., 2006; Guastella et al., 2008).
  16. ↑ Miller GM (January 2011). "The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity". J. Neurochem. 116 (2): 164–176. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x. PMC 3005101. PMID 21073468.
  17. ↑ Bancroft J (September 2005). "The endocrinology of sexual arousal". The Journal of Endocrinology. 186 (3): 411–27. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06233. PMID 16135662.
  18. 1 2 Bode, Adam; Kushnick, Geoff (2021). "Proximate and Ultimate Perspectives on Romantic Love". Frontiers in Psychology. 12. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573123. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8074860. PMID 33912094.
  19. ↑ Bartels, A.; Zeki, S. (27 November 2000). "The neural basis of romantic love". NeuroReport. 11 (17): 3829–3834. doi:10.1097/00001756-200011270-00046. ISSN 0959-4965. PMID 11117499. S2CID 1448875.
  20. ↑ Acevedo, Bianca P.; Poulin, Michael J.; Collins, Nancy L.; Brown, Lucy L. (2020). "After the Honeymoon: Neural and Genetic Correlates of Romantic Love in Newlywed Marriages". Frontiers in Psychology. 11: 634. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00634. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 7223160. PMID 32457675.
  21. 1 2 Rajagopalan, Archana; Jinu, Kv; Sailesh, KumarSai; Mishra, Soumya; Reddy, UdayaKumar; Mukkadan, JosephKurien (2017). "Understanding the links between vestibular and limbic systems regulating emotions". Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine. 8 (1): 11–15. doi:10.4103/0976-9668.198350. ISSN 0976-9668. PMC 5320810. PMID 28250668.
  22. ↑ Aron, Arthur; Fisher, Helen; Mashek, Debra J.; Strong, Greg; Li, Haifang; Brown, Lucy L. (July 2005). "Reward, Motivation, and Emotion Systems Associated With Early-Stage Intense Romantic Love". Journal of Neurophysiology. 94 (1): 327–337. doi:10.1152/jn.00838.2004. ISSN 0022-3077. PMID 15928068. S2CID 396612.
  23. ↑ Lewis, Thomas; Lannon, Richard; Amini, Fari (2000). A General Theory of Love. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 978-0-307-42434-1. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
  24. ↑ Aron, Arthur; Fisher, Helen; Mashek, Debra J.; Strong, Greg; Li, Haifang; Brown, Lucy L. (2005). "Reward, Motivation, and Emotion Systems Associated With Early-Stage Intense Romantic Love". Journal of Neurophysiology. 94 (1): 327–337. doi:10.1152/jn.00838.2004. PMID 15928068. S2CID 396612.
  25. ↑ Bartels, Andreas; Zeki, Semir (27 November 2000). "The Neural Basis of Romantic Love". NeuroReport. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 11 (17): 3829–3834. doi:10.1097/00001756-200011270-00046. PMID 11117499. S2CID 1448875.
  26. 1 2 3 S. Ortigue; F. Bianchi-Demicheli; A. F. de C. Hamilton; S. T. Grafton (July 2007). "The Neural Basis of Love as a Subliminal Prime: An Event-related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 19 (7): 1218–1230. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.7.1218. PMID 17583996. S2CID 12270112.
  27. ↑ Isern-Mas, Carme; Gomila, Antoni (May 2022). "Love, friendship, and moral motivation". Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology. 42 (2): 93–107. doi:10.1037/teo0000166. ISSN 2151-3341. S2CID 245463982.
  28. ↑ Marazziti, Donatella; Baroni, Stefano (1 February 2012). "Romantic love: the mistery of its biological roots". Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 9 (1): 14–20.
  29. 1 2 Harlow, Harry F. (December 1958). "The nature of love". American Psychologist. 13 (12): 673–685. doi:10.1037/h0047884. ISSN 1935-990X. S2CID 10722381.
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